Introduction 
A research base on Mars would be transformative for both science and society. Though it may sound like science fiction, this vision could become reality sooner than expected. Missions of this scale drive the development of new technologies that empower humanity to continue exploring beyond Earth. However, several critical challenges must be addressed, including securing reliable sources of food, oxygen, water, and energy, as well as protecting against galactic cosmic rays (GCR). Additionally, considerations around astronaut health and space medicine, flight logistics, cultural impacts, and the potential for long-term colonization are paramount.

This article will focus into the entire journey to Mars, exploring the complexities and innovations that will make it possible.

The Parallels  of Mars and Earth and Possibilities for Future Habitation

Mars shares surprising similarities with Earth, making it an intriguing target for exploration and potential colonization. Located in the habitable zone—where conditions might support life—Mars is our closest planetary neighbor. A Martian day is 24 hours and 37 minutes, closely matching an Earth day, and its gravity is about 38% of Earth’s at 3.71 m/s². Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, and a lengthy orbital period of 687 days, or nearly two Earth years.

Scientific interest in Mars is high due to the presence of water, found as ice at the poles and in underground reservoirs at depths of 11-20 km. Currently, Mars is inhabited solely by robotic explorers, conducting valuable but limited research. With human exploration, there is hope of uncovering signs of past life, potentially through biosignatures like organic molecules or fossils, which could hint at life beyond our solar system.

Plans to eventually inhabit Mars are underway, with companies like SpaceX exploring options such as terraforming, or modifying the Martian environment to make it livable for humans. For effective terraforming, Mars would need a protective magnetic field, which is influenced by the planet’s core activity. Alternatively, scientists are investigating the use of cyanobacteria, which could convert carbon dioxide to oxygen through photosynthesis. These bacteria have shown resilience, surviving Mars-like conditions for 533 days in a test on the ISS.

However, even if we managed to establish Earth-like conditions on Mars, they might be temporary. Without a magnetic field, solar winds could strip away the atmosphere and water, making long-term habitability a challenge. For more on Mars, its moons, and satellites, visit NASA’s Mars model: NASA Mars Overview

SpaceX’s Starship and the Future of Space Exploration

Before astronauts can begin constructing facilities or conducting research on Mars, they first need a way to get there—and for many, that brings to mind Elon Musk. As the co-founder of Tesla and head of several companies, Musk is perhaps best known for SpaceX, a pioneering aerospace manufacturer and space exploration company he founded and leads. SpaceX’s ambitious project, Starship, is a fully reusable rocket designed to carry both crew and cargo to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. Fueled by methane and oxygen, Starship’s heat shield is built to withstand multiple re-entries, making it one of the most advanced launch vehicles ever developed.

Standing at an impressive 121 meters with a diameter of nine meters, Starship is a feat of engineering, capable of carrying up to 150 metric tonnes in its reusable form or 250 metric tonnes in its expendable form. The Starship system has three core components: the Raptor engines, the Super Heavy booster, and the Starship spacecraft itself.

The Raptor engines are methane-oxygen staged-combustion engines, each generating 230 metric tonnes of thrust. These engines are both powerful and reusable, with each engine measuring 1.3 meters in diameter and 3.1 meters in height.

Super Heavy, the first-stage booster, will be equipped with 33 Raptor engines—13 in the center and 20 around the perimeter. At 71 meters tall (compared to the typical booster height of 45 meters), Super Heavy will have an incredible thrust of 7,590 metric tonnes. Like other SpaceX rockets, Super Heavy is designed to re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and land back on the launch site for reuse.

The Starship spacecraft, which forms the second stage, is capable of transporting crew and cargo. With a height of 50 meters, Starship boasts a payload capacity of 100-150 tonnes, making it ideal for deep-space missions. Once launched, the journey to Mars aboard Starship would take approximately six months, potentially bringing us closer than ever to realizing a human presence on the Red Planet.

Figure 1. The Falcon flight stages Starship goes through the same process. Image source: SpaceX

Phoenix Crater is a Prime Candidate for Mars Base Establishment

Selecting a suitable location on Mars requires meeting a few critical criteria: strong communication signals, proximity to water sources, natural shelter, and ample space for both the Starship landing and base construction. One of the most promising sites is the Phoenix Crater, named after the Phoenix lander that arrived there on May 25, 2008, with a mission to uncover the secrets of the Martian Arctic. Located near the North Pole, the crater offers access to potential water sources, ample space, reliable communication signals, and possible protection from galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), making it a strong candidate. While additional tests are necessary, Phoenix Crater shows considerable promise as a future base location on Mars.

Figure 2. The Phoenix crater (top left) Image source: Researchgate

Energy

The base will be powered primarily by solar energy. Lightweight, paper-thin solar cells developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) can be mounted on the base’s walls, conserving both space and weight during transport. Although these solar cells are costly, their efficiency and portability make them ideal for Mars missions. In case of dust storms—common occurrences on the Red Planet—wind turbines can serve as backup, and fuel cells can also be used to maintain power. These fuel cells are capable of sustaining operations for up to 17 days if solar energy becomes unavailable.

Airlock and Central Living Hub

Astronauts will enter the base through an airlock, which stabilizes internal pressure to allow for safe entry and breathable conditions. This airlock is designed with a three-meter diameter and a height of 2.5 meters. The base’s various domes are interconnected by hallways, each equipped with airlock-style doors. These doors serve as a safety measure, ensuring that if one dome loses pressure, the others remain unaffected.

At the heart of the base lies the central living hub, where astronauts each have a small room for rest. This space includes shared facilities: a bathroom, kitchen, fitness area, and a common room for relaxation. The center has a diameter of seven meters and stands 4.5 meters high, with two levels connected by a central ladder, allowing astronauts to move efficiently between floors.

Figure 3. Model of a Mars base, scaled 1/100. In the back: greenhouse, left: airlock, middle: center, front: waste management, right behind: laboratory, right in the front: water

Image source: Kaat Degros, designer and creator of this Mars base.

Laboratory and Water

Mars astronauts will conduct essential research in their laboratory, which measures 6.5 meters across and is 2.5 meters high. Among their key experiments will be analyzing Martian water for signs of life. They may obtain samples from underground reservoirs or, with help from rovers, from ice deposits near the North Pole. These water samples can go directly to the lab for study or to a filtration system that purifies it for drinking, after which it is stored in tanks. This water processing dome spans 6.8 meters in diameter and is 3 meters high, serving as the base’s main hub for both water research and storage.

Greenhouse and Waste Management

The largest dome, at 12 meters across and 4.5 meters tall, serves as the greenhouse. Here, plants supply food and oxygen for the crew, producing enough to support four astronauts with a reserve in case of shortages. To sustain them, roughly 90 square meters of crops are needed, including Arabidopsis and dwarf wheat, which have shown promising growth on the ISS. Managing waste efficiently will also be essential. Organic waste will go to a separate dome where it decomposes, releasing methane that can be used as fuel for the return journey. Non-organic materials like plastics and metals will be recycled for repairs and other uses.

Building Materials

Due to limited budget and cargo space, transporting traditional building materials to Mars isn’t feasible. Instead, astronauts will use a 3D printer to create structures from regolith, the loose Martian soil and rock. However, this material contains perchlorates, which are harmful to humans and may interfere with thyroid function. Bacteria that reduce perchlorates could be used to make the regolith safe for construction. To protect the habitat from cosmic rays, the walls will need to be thick. As an alternative, astronauts could use radiation-resistant rocket parts for structures and furnishings, though they would need a backup plan for returning to Earth if parts are repurposed.

Health and Medicine

The six-month journey to Mars in microgravity poses health challenges for astronauts, such as muscle loss, reduced bone density, and increased inflammation. Exercise (two hours daily) can help with muscle and bone health, while stress management and anti-inflammatory measures will support immune function. Research in microgravity could also offer medical benefits on Earth. On the ISS, cancer research, for example, has progressed through studying blood vessel cells, which thrive longer in microgravity, providing a better model for studying their behavior.

Radiation exposure is another significant risk, with levels much higher than those faced by nuclear workers on Earth. While space suits are designed to offer protection, astronauts on Mars still face exposure levels above Earth standards. Social isolation presents its own challenges. With limited contact, astronauts will need strong group cohesion and may benefit from a psychologist onboard. Research suggests that a “joker” in the group can improve morale. Communication with loved ones on Earth, though delayed by up to 24 minutes, may offer additional support, along with stress-relieving activities like art and meditation.

Conclusion

The development of a research base on Mars is advancing rapidly, driven by a team of scientists and engineers dedicated to making this vision a reality. The creativity, commitment, and innovative solutions shaping this project are a testament to human curiosity and determination to explore beyond our world.

This article was written by Kaat Degros, Humaniora Kindsheid Jesu in Hasselt, Belgium, and a graduate of the Oxford Academy Girls in Space Crew 1.

References

1. Mars Overview, NASA Science: Comprehensive information about Mars, its geology, climate, and exploration missions.
   • NASA Mars
2. Terraforming Mars: Possibilities and Challenges, Planetary Society: Analyzes the potential and challenges involved in making Mars more Earth-like.
   • Planetary Society – Can We Actually Terraform Mars?
3. SpaceX Starship Vehicle: Specifications and updates on SpaceX’s Starship, designed for Mars and deep-space exploration.

1. 1. SpaceX Starship
2. SpaceX Mission Steps: Overview of the flight stages and mission progressions in SpaceX’s Mars program.
   1. SpaceX Mission

5. Follow the Water, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Guidance on potential Mars landing sites based on water presence, essential for future habitation.

1. 1. NASA JPL – Follow the Water
2. Phoenix Crater and Mars Landing Politics: Insight into the considerations for Mars landing sites, highlighting Phoenix Crater.
   1. NASA Science – Phoenix Crater

7. MIT’s Paper-Thin Solar Panels: Details on lightweight, flexible solar panels developed by MIT, relevant for off-Earth energy needs.

1. 1. MIT News – Ultrathin Solar Cells
2. Fuel Cells in Space Applications, Airbus Foundation: Video exploring fuel cell technology applications for sustainable energy in space.
   1. Airbus Foundation – Fuel Cells

9. NASA’s Space Agriculture – Seeds and Growth: Investigations into growing plants and seeds in space, an essential part of off-world agriculture.

1. 1. NASA Exploration Research – Growing Plants in Space
2. Waste Management Systems, Moon Camp Challenge: Approaches to waste management in lunar habitats, applicable to Mars habitation.
   1. Moon Camp Challenge – Waste Management on the Moon

11. Building Walls for Space Habitats: Video discussing construction materials suitable for Martian walls and habitats.

1. 1. YouTube – Building Materials
2. Perchlorate Considerations, WebMD: Information on perchlorates, which are abundant on Mars and could impact human health and construction.
   1. WebMD – Perchlorate and Health

13. NASA Cancer Medicine Research: Summary of cancer research advancements made possible by NASA’s space station experiments.

1. 1. NASA – Human Health Breakthroughs